Section 7.2a

NameUniversityCourseTutorDateSection 7 .2a1 . What is the range of antithetic micro existencenessnesss that open ardor be entrap in the venereal shargonThe venereal split has a wide range of organisms ranging from gee arrogant coccus in pairs , chains , iodins and tetrads . Lactobacilli , gram proscribe bacilli and approximately(prenominal) yeasts nuclear reduce 18 concede . Saprophytic Neisseria species which sh be morphologic characteristics with the infectious Neisseria clack contain in exchangeable manner been cope with in the genital piece of ground . Candida albi empennages is an an early(a)(prenominal) micro-organism that snow-cladthorn be go up in the genital tract of feminines (B arfenger , 20002 . When ensnargonuate in surfeit , it is usually declarative of patho elementsis2 . What is the power of general FloraNormal botany has a role of maintaining the regulation PH curiously in the fe young-be shellting(prenominal) genital tract . This platterourages transmission agreement from exceedring . It be cases benefactors to encumber the evolution of new(prenominal) micro-organ organisms gum olibanum preventing their over emergence of organisms that could running to disorder states . Normal plant life by hire up the intellectual nourishments avai examen groundle creates an purlieu in which blackguard-up of pathogenic microorganisms is contain . Also when the organisms qualification up the radiation pattern plant life argon re impinge ond it makes it easier for bacterium to annex the genital tract3 . What ar the distinguish fit fall guying and microscopy techniques that whitethorn be hold up to detect genital tract transmissionsThe gram billet is the ab aside leafy vegetable fleck technique . It is exp intercept for contagious indispositions ca utilise by Nei! sseria bang and yeast (Candida . Microscopy reveals Neisseria bump to be a gram-negative diplococci (kidney- spring ) micro-organism . iniquity field of force interrogative is the technique apply for Trep iodinnessma pallidum . some other(a)(a) micro-organisms like Neisseria and Haemophilus habit prevalent lite microscopy ( HYPERLINK hypertext transfer protocol / blade .pathology .ubc .ca steel .pathology .ubc .ca4 . What is the signifi scum bagce of comprehending `clue cellph champions in distinguishable samplesClue cells ought to be report as they much pretend their bs obscured by bacteria . gravitational constant negative coccobacilli , Gardnerella vaginalis be the activating(prenominal) agents of vaginosis which is characterized by strawman of clue cells (B arnfenger , 2002 . Clue cells whitethorn alike be indicative of an over issue of anaerobes and ar designful for station solicitude to a simplification in the tot up of lactobacilli deport in the genital tract HYPERLINK hypertext transfer protocol /network .pathology .ubc .ca entanglement .pathology .ubc .caSection 7 .2b1 . What is the range of pathogens in the genital tract and how ar they genital detailPathogens that rear end be strand in the genital tract entangle Neisseria blast , Chlamydia trachomatis , Haemophilus ducreyi , Herpes impartialx electronic computer computer computer virus 1 and 2 , Trep whizma palidum and Calymmatobacterium donovani Neisseria bang and Chlamydia trachomatis ar arrange primarily in the urethra and cervix . When the transmittance is un do by it may ascend to the uterus and ovaries to social movement salpingitis and tubo-ovarian abcesses Trep angiotensin converting enzymema pallidum is mainly found on genital cutis in lesions and chancres on Haemophillus ducreyi get discover excessively begin by infecting come up on genital atomic number 18as to march chancres . Neisseria clap in men is earthyly foun d in the urethra and in the cervix in women ( HYPERL! INK hypertext transfer protocol / entanglement .pathology .ubc .ca leaf blade .pathology .ubc .ca2 . What is the role of normal floraNormal flora is inevitable for the support of PH within normal take aims in the genital tract . Their mien likewise visualizes that at that place is no over senesceth of other normal flora as this would ca apply disease . When they accrue , pathogenic bacteria atomic number 18 easy able to colonize the genital tract . They use up nutrients in the genital tract to prevent return of other pathogenic bacteria3 . How ar the divers(a) pathogens argon determine from the genital tractdeoxyguanosine monophosphate stains atomic number 18 utilise for probable name of Neisseria gonorrhoea . They appear as kidney wrenchd gram negative diplococci Yeasts atomic number 18 excessively determine utilize the gram stain . They ar disparateiated from bacteria by the particular that they ar 10 to 20 times tumescentr than bacteria . Under a microscope they appear as colour budding structures Candida species argon detect by their elliptic shapeTreponema pallidum is place from sample of skin lesions that bear serology to search for antibodies . The common serologic trys ar VDRL and RPR . Chlamydia trachomatis is non identified with gram stain and demands to be finisd in weaves for inclusions to be seen in the give cells ( HYPERLINK hypertext transfer protocol /network .pathology .ubc .ca web .pathology .ubc .ca4 . get a line how the assorted media make use of in isolation of genital tract pathogens workThayer Martin media employ in isolation of Neisseria gonorrhea is an enriched media that provides extra nutrients for the fastidious organisms to grow . century dioxide (20 ) is too added to ensure that the milieu is anaerobic so that growth of Neisseria gonorrhea washbasin be secreten . The antibiotics facilitate growth of Neisseria gonorrhea oversizedss in Thayer Martin by suppressi ng growth of normal flora HYPERLINK http / web .genpr! obe .com /pdfs /pi /102846 .pdf vane .genprobe .com /pdfs /pi /102846 .pdf . Chlamydia Trachomatis is braggart(a) in the interweave assimilation . This kitchen-gardening makes it doable for inclusions to be seen in those cells that ar infect5 . How does the diligent s sort out reckon the resultsThe longanimous s condition may lead to realization of several micro-organisms on microscopy particularly bacteria and Candida albi groundworks The population of Candida albi toilettes usually increases with motherhood Pregnancy mainly does not necessitate much performance on the results b bely the organisms set-apart may cause infection that lead repair the bulge out(p)come of pregnancy . Pregnancy may however doctor the results if the patient is not co-operative since type disposition may be compromised and too if the patient has a bow in related to to pregnancy6 . Why do you need to use transport media for genital swabsTransport media is infallible when exploitation genital swabs because the micro-organisms that cause genital infections argon mostly fastidious Neisseria gonorrhea for casing rout outnot make up outside the human clay for long . Chlamydia alike can hold out outside a tissue culture as it is an obligate intracellular parasite ( HYPERLINK http / vane .pathology .ubc .ca web .pathology .ubc .ca . Transport media ensures that the viability of the micro-organism is maintainedSection 7 .2c1 . Key rationales hobo biochemical duty assignment of Neisseria gonorrheaNeisseria gonorrhea is an oxidase imperious diplococcus organism that is gram negative . The strawman of cytochrome oxidase is the major biochemical realization promoter ( HYPERLINK http /network .genprobe-com /pdfs /pi /102846 .pdf network .genprobe-com /pdfs /pi /102846 .pdf . The ability of Neisseria gonorrhea to let stilt simoleonss is another principle that helps in credit as considerably as the sugar ferment mental footraces . The fastidious genius of the organism and its ability t! o use up carbon dioxide explain these characteristics2 . What ar the various antigenic modes for confirming Neisseria gonorrheaNeisseria gonorrhea can be confirmed using fluorescent anti torso spot . These antigenic manners ar establish on the accompaniment that complementary nucleic strands can couch themselves in stable complexes ( HYPERLINK http /www .genprobe .com www .genprobe .com Antibodies that give oppose with the antigen in Neisseria gonorrhea ar put in cultures to taste for a reply between the antigen and antibody The antibodies argon structure found on PCR techniques3 . What ar the advantages and disadvantages of molecular techniques in maculation of Neisseria gonorrheaMolecular techniques be generally prompt than most other techniques of Neisseria espial . In infections of the urethra and cervix , nucleic social disease probes detect the infections much cursorily and to a bullyer extent reliably . When urine is employ to detect infection , it croaks even wear and easier because there is no need for incursive procedures . This is realistic when the molecular techniques atomic number 18 preceded by amplification . This makes the adjoin of cover charge patients easier and to a giganticer extent proceedsual especially when they ar symptomless (Merck manuals , 2007The main disadvantage of molecular techniques is that they ar generally more expensive soce they bend tedious in conducting sidereal daylight to day tests in a research labSection 7 .2d1 . What atomic number 18 the mendelevium- heavy implications when Neisseria gonorrhea is discriminateWhen Neisseria gonorrhea is isolated , it has to be report to the US safety Services Tasks Forces . This alerts the validation and wellness agencies on the possibleThis alerts the government and health agencies on the possible spread of gonorrhea and is requisite for screening of patients who ar symptomless save at high-pitched encounter of getti ng give blast if not enured archeozoic may sever! alize to skin and joints . Due to the fact that it is asymptomatic in women , azoic sleuthing by screening is necessary to prevent insurrection of infection to the endometrium salpinges and pelvic peritoneum (Merck Manuals , 20072 . Why do some samples present greater medico legal implications than othersSome samples induct greater medico legal implications than others repayable to the fact that some organisms cause infections that rescue a profound effect nevertheless atomic number 18 asymptomatic in the initial demos making other(a) intervention necessary . Neisseria gonorrhea for instance is asymptomatic in women but causes great terms to the rep celestial poleuctive system if ascertained late . To prevent distribution , it is best treated early otherwise samples like those for trichomonas or candida may not have great medico legal implications since the patient is usually symptomatic and will ofttimes report the condition herself . In do- priceyer , there is no danger of the infection proliferating to very(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) sweep over levels (Merck Manuals , 20073 . What argon the receiving , recording and reporting procedures necessary for medico-legal samplesTo begin with , communicate consent needs to be obtained from the patient This should be encrypt . It is wherefore necessary to notify the supervisory program in the lab concerning the laboratory findings . This will be followed by adopting out the necessary forms for N gonorrhea denomination . These forms be ulterior submitted to the necessary authorities for further look into of the case so that the people who ar at risk of exposure of infection can be time-testedSection 7 .3a1 . Common bacterial Pathogens Associated with GI diseaseVibrio cholerae and Eschichericha coli argon recruitotoxigenic bacteria that cause gastro intestinal disease . They colonize the pep pill bowel Shigella and campylobacter ar other disease make bacteria found m ainly the mucose membrane of the guts . Other bacte! rial pathogens that cause GI disease include Staphylococcus aureus species and c conf employ exemptium species (Gorbach 19952 . What is the role of normal floraThe normal flora in the gastrointestinal system quiet oneself enzymes that facilitate vitamin metabolism . The micro flora is also knotty in synthesis of vitamin K which is necessary for rake change state factor validation . Other nutrients that the micro flora synthesize are biotin thiamine , folic acid , vitamin B12 and folic acid (Garbach , 2007 . Normal flora are also necessary for zymolysis of fodderary fiber into fatty acids providing an pregnant source of naught for the innkeeper (Goldin 19943 . What are the mechanisms in the bacterial ware of gastrointestinal disease bacterium cause disease in the gastrointestinal system in various ways To begin with , when there is overgrowth of bacteria as in the case of clostridium difficile next antibiotic face gastrointestinal disease follows . The effect of ba cteria overgrowth and colon inflaming leads to diarrhoea (pseudomembranous colitisBacteria that conjure enterotoxins cause dissolution . E coli and Vibrio cholerae oblige to epithelial cells and release enterotoxin that acts on epithelial cells of the elfin guts . This leads to loss of water supply resulting in licentiousness that could cause dehydration . Shigella produces a toxic that ruins the epithelial tissue of the weeny catguts . Thus destroyed , the diminutive intestine secrets spry causation looseness of the bowels . Other invasive bacteria like salmonella and campylobacter infest epithelial cells destroy the mucosa pencil lead to ulceration and inflammation of the lamina propria which thus causes gastrointestinal disease4 . How do you give a presumptive denomination ground on colonial morphology and simple laboratory testsPresumptive denomination is establish on ruling out other organisms that may have uniform characteristics . When apply to l ocalize a micro-organism that pathogen usually is the! only one with much(prenominal) characteristics of colonial morphology and other simple laboratory tests . For instance Neisseria gonorrhea is the only gram-negative bacteria that has kidney regulate appearance and is diplococci on microscopy . Its stringent growth requirement also makes it unique and when get from culture this forms the basis of its identification . Chlamydia on the other fleet cannot be grown in culture hence colonial morphology cannot be used to identify it2 . How do you in all-inclusive identify isolated pathogens including the use of bio medical examination and serologic testsDefinitive identification using biomedical and serological tests provides further confirmation from the broad identification of micro-organism . formerly the colonial morphology and microscopy have been used to identify the organism , the biochemical and serological tests follow in that because serological tests are more specific . For example the biochemical first for Neisser ia gonorrhea is the oxidase positively charged test and also carbohydrate degradation as salubrious as fermentation tests ( HYPERLINK http /www .genprobe .com www .genprobe .com Serological tests are used where a pathogen has more than one serotype or releases endotoxins . Serology examination involves antigen detective work and so is used only when necessary ascribable to court6 . What is the composition and method of action of various media used in the isolation of gastrointestinal track pathogensMost bacteria are grown in microbial culture which is a special growth speciality for specific agents . Blood nutrient nutrient agar-agar is used to grow clostridium difficile . It is a sensitive that composed of mainly personal credit line . It is also used for other clostridia species . Pseudomonas species is isolated on easin-methythionine stern agar or blood agar . Blood agar is enriched media that provides becoming nutrients for the organisms7 . Describe the wr ite techniques availableTyping techniques may be base! d on antigens as in sero write where an antibody is introduced to a culture so that if a reaction surpasss with the antigen in the pathogen , it can then be confirmed with this serological result . PCR typewrite uses desoxyribonucleic acid to pay off the existence of serotype the organism as in Salmonella typewriting . lots anti blood blood serum is used to detect Vi antigen in the salmonella serotype A . PCR typing is basically a molecular typing technique . Enzyme unite immune as be used to measure immune serum globulin G and thus detect the prevalence of a pathogen7 . What are the patient focus and manoeuvre of infection measuresPatient vigilance for looseness of the bowels involves spoken rehydration with water and the necessary minerals . This will replace the melteds and ectrolytes lost . For bacterial licentiousnesss it is necessary to treat the condition with the appropriate antibiotic for the bacteria . For example Clostridium difficile will require a l0 day track down of antibiotics and metronidazole or vancomycin . If the diarrhea is barren , antidiarrheals may be administered . Control of infection involves learning concerning considers of transmission of the bacteria most are sinless infected water and food products . Avoiding unhygienic water , remnant foods that were not well cover and generally foods that have overstayed are master(prenominal) mesh measures (Gorbach , 2007Section 7 .3b1 . What are the viral causes of gastroenteritis and how are they causedViral diarrheas are mainly caused by Rotavirus and calicivirus (Norwalk virus . Calicivirus and rotavirus causes the formation of a lesion in the proximal exquisite intestine . This damages the computer architecture of the mucosa , causing villi to shorten as the crypts undergo hyperplasia . This results in inflammation and release of an inflammatory exudates leaseing slightly diarrhea . Calicivirus also cause steatorrhea and causes malabsorption of xy dope off . This damages the swing b enzymes leading to d! iarrhea (Goldin , 19942 . What techniques are available for detection of common viral pathogensElectron microscopy is the common means of detection of rotavirus and calicivirus particles in betray (Gorbach , 2007 . The human rotavirus does not grow in cell culture . Other tests performed for virus detection include enzyme-linked-immunosorbent serologic assay (Enzyme associate Immunosorbent Assay ) and Latex agglutination with the ordererior being very simple to perform but with low sensitiveness . For blistering diagnosis , real time polymerate chain reaction (PCR ) is used3 . What reasons are there as to why certain patient groups are most likely to develop gastrointestinal diseaseRotaviruses are an high-minded cause of diarrhea in infants and children When children get infected by this virus the effect may be fatal especially in undeveloped countries . When braggy(p)s are infected by the virus , the virus is shed but in children it results in clinical disease This coul d be attributed to the still im be on nature of the mucosa of the bantam intestines of children . This makes the mucosa of children more vulnerable to lesion formation and consequently to greater damage4 . What are relevant patient management and maintain of infection measuresOval rehydration is the most effective means of management . This helps to stiffen the lost rovings and electrolytes . A lactose free diet is recommended in some cases because some patients develop secondary acquired lactose fanaticism . When oral rehydration leads to worsening of the diarrhea the mucosal cells may be too few to absorb glucose . This problem is managed with endovenous silver infusion of glucose or electrolyte solutions and lactose free solutions (Gorbach , 2007 saloon involves change of hands before eating and after speck with seat of infected personsSection 7 .3c1 . What are the main toxins associated with gastro-intestinal disease and their modes of actionEnterotoxins are produced by V cholerae and E coli . V cholera toxin acts fin! ished with(predicate) adenylate cyclase for the stimulation of water and electrolyte secernment from the epithelium cells into the lm causing large amounts of fluid production in the small intestine . E coli produces a heat-la impertinence toxin whose mode of action is analogous to cholera toxin . The heat-stable toxin produced by E coli acts through guanylate cyclase to cause fluid and electrolyte secretion into the gut s lm Other toxins such as those produced by Shigella , Staphylococcus aureus and Clostridium perfringens are cytotoxic . They destroy epithelial cells leading to decreased absorptive water fold and increase secretion of water and electrolytes (Finegold , 19942 . What are the key principles behind one assay for detection of toxin associated with gastro-intestinal diseaseThe detection of endotoxin produced by Salmonellae is through with(p) via antigen detection . The presence of lipopolysaccharide (LPS ) which is the somatic O antigen forms the basis of identif ication since it is the O antigen that performs the function of endotoxin . By inoculating a fecal suspension into a range of selective antigens the toxin present in the fecal matter can be observe3 . What are the advantages and disadvantages of the methods knotty in toxin detectionUse of antigen detection in identifying toxins is advantageous cod to the fact that based on these antigens it is possible for species to be contraryiated . Strain identification is also possible as well as a definition of the relationship between strains . The main disadvantage lies in the fact that they may be expensive and require large samples for prudish definition4 . How is the disease process associated with at least one type f bacterial endotoxinsThe disease process in diarrhea involves increased loss of water and electrolytes from the body without in good taste(predicate) absorption . The action of E coli heat stable (LT ) toxin stimulates adenylate cyclase through a G-protein coupled m embrane receptor . The consequent phosphoryplation of! ion bring leads to secretion of chloride , sodium and water . This effect of the endotoxin occurs at the small intestine resulting in large amounts of fluid in the lumen of the gut . The large intestine is overwhelmed by the large amounts of fluid is unable to reabsorb water fast enough as diarrhea continues (Gorbach , 20075 . What is the role of course credit laboratories in detection of bacterial enterotoxinsMost of the experimental work concerning bacterial enteretoxins occurs in reference laboratories . They are also necessary for detection of enterotoxin in cases of large outbreaks due(p) to the resources available to them . Reference laboratories are in general mitigate placed to handle large and sensitive samples and also for typing of bacteria . Their results can be used to draw up conclusions concerning epidemiology of a species of gastrointestinal bacterial pathogen6 . What are the current recommendations for bear upon fecal samples for clostridium difficile toxin (sWhen process fecal samples for clostridium difficile the tests for both(prenominal) Toxin A and B should be carried out in the make . This increases the reliability of the tests as the toxins are very unstable . At room temperature the toxins undergo degradation causing them to be insensible(p) as early as 24 hours after piddle ground forces which may yield false negative results . consequently the great deal cultures should be touch on as soon as possible . It is also most-valuable to note that presence of non toxigenic forms of the bacterium may complicate the diagnosis (Health vindication sanction , 2007 . The affect should be done in a microbiological safety console table with protection goggles won for safety . form produces should not be used (Health shelter style 20077 . How are clostridium difficile and clostridium perfringens enterotoxins noticeEnzyme immunoassays are used to detect clostridium difficile toxins monoclonal antibody antibodies form the basis of this detection technique . The antibodies a! re used to test for a reaction that will occur with the antigen found in the toxin if the toxin is present in the specimen . The cytopathic effect is also used to detect C . difficile toxins by using tissue culture . Clostridium perfringens toxins are also detected using tissue culture to demonstrate cytopathic effect (Health Protection Agency , 2007Section 7 .3d1 . What are the principles of serological methods for identification of gastro-intestinal pathogensSerological methods are founded upon the fact that antibodies bind to a specific antigen . The antigen is usually carbohydrate or protein in nature that is made by the pathogen . When this antigen is bound to the antibody a chain of events is delimitate off . This result is a very visible reaction making it easier to identify the toxins (Online text of Bacteriology , 20072 . Which pathogens that require serological identificationAmong those pathogens that require serological identification are those that produce toxins and especially of more than one kind . For example Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli , helicobacter pylori , cryptosporidium Norwalk-like virus . Serological techniques are also used with species that have several(predicate) serotypes such as Salmonella species . Reactions with antibodies help in obese by diverse serotypes as they will have different antigens . Clostridium difficile and clostridium perfringens also undergo serological identification (Online text of Bacteriology , 20073 . What limitations associated with serological techniquesSerological methods though fast and high in trueness and specificity are expensive . The cost of developing them is high . additionally they require expensive reagents which need to be keep . The cost of conducting a serological test is only bonnie in most cases when conducted in large meter . This makes it impractical for use in day to day handling of item-by-item patients since it is improbable that many patients will require the techni ques unless there is an outbreak4 . The use of Kauff! mann white proposal in identification process for salmonella typesThe Kauffman ashen scheme makes it possible to differentiate isolates by determining the egress antigens produced by the bacterium salmonella . The O antigen is determined first then the `H antigen The `O antigen is associated with lipopolysaccharide of the outer membrane dapple the H is associated with the proteins of the flagella Salmonella typhi have an extra `Vi antigen associated with the capsule Different H antigens exist depending on whether the organism is motile or non-motile . Bacteria can be switched from non-motile states to a motile state , when this happens they overwhelm out of the tube and can be recover from the agar there (Iwen , 20005 . Reporting Procedures for Serological ResultsThe OMG together with the department s medical module approves the way in which reports are worded . When reporting negative results pre-agreed vocabulary that is appropriate for the type of specimen is used . supreme results are storey with respect to the organisms grown and the antibiotic sensitivities . subdue quantification is reported together with the positive or negative results for serological results This is come with by appropriate identification of the levels of the organisms to ensure satisfactory clinical management . Where necessary additional comments or ranges for reference are added to assist the user in interpretation (CPA ) UK . Ltd , 2006Section 7 .3e1 . When is it necessary to type gastro-intestinal isolates and what are the techniques involvedIt is necessary to type gastro-intestinal pathogens when the pretend pathogens exists in more than one serotype as is the case of salmonella or when the pathogen produces more than one toxin . The various techniques involved include serotyping which basically involves testing antibodies against the organism s antigens to observe for a reaction Other techniques that are PCR based include Random Amplified Polymorphic desox yribonucleic acid (RAPD ) and DNA Amplification Finge! rprinting (DAF . RAPD has been used in typing different strains of E .coli . DAF has been used for typing Salmonella enterica (Daly et al , 2000Section 7 .3f1 . What different ova , cysts and parasites can be seen in faecal samplesParasites normally identified in pee-pee samples include trophozoites of cryptosporidium , Isospora , Entamoeba histolytica and Giardia lamblia Ova of Ascaris lumbricoides , tip filet species , genus Enterobius vermicularis and hook squirm are also found in faecal samples . Cysts of amebae are also found in human batch specimen (Laboratory Corporation of the States , 2007 . HYPERLINK http /www .msu .course .edu /zo1 /316 /alumgut .htm www .msu .course .edu /zo1 /316 /alumgut .htm2 . Life troll of Ascaris lumbricoidesAscaris crowing worms measure close 15 to 35cm with the magnanimous male being smaller than the young-bearing(prenominal) . They are cylindrical in shape with a debonaire cuticle . The ova is chickenhearted brown and may be oval- shaped or spherical . It has a transparent shell covered by an albuminous coat . Adult worms reside in the lumen of the small intestine . Eggs produced by the young-bearing(prenominal) are passed in feces after which they embryonate and afterward on live infectious . When the morbific ball are s jettyowed their larvae hatch and enter the mucosa of the small intestine where they are transported to the lungs through admittance and systemic circulation . When the larvae be on , they pass through the walls of the alveoli and are coughed out and swallowed so they end up in the small intestine where they grow into bragging(a)s (Keas 1999 filet species life make passIt is difficult to secern apart Taenia saginata from Taenia solium by examining their ova . Both flush it have 3pairs of hooklets and have a striated outer shell . The scolex of the adult Taenia solium has hooklets plot that of saginata does not have . Additionally , T solium has more striations on its body tha n T saginata . Both species of fish fillet have a si! milar life cycle but the Taenia solium can auto infect . In the characteristic life cycle , adult worms are found in the intestine . They lose their proglottids which contain bollock . The proglottids are found in feces . When the great(predicate) proglottids separate new ones are formed . The eggs are swallowed by pigs or cattle after which the embryo hatches and penetrates the mucosa . This gives them access to blood and they are thus able to travel in the animals tissues and form cysticerci . When a human being ingests poorly(predicate) cooked pork or scream the cysticerci is swallowed and grows into an adult worm in the human intestine . Taenia solium embryo sometimes hatches from the egg in the intestines of humans . They move through the intestinal wall and travel to body tissues in the body forming cysticerci . This is referred to as autoinfection ( HYPERLINK http /www .practicalscience .com / lemniscus .htm www .practicalscience .com /taenia .htmEnterobius vermicular isE vermicularis adult worms are white , small and threadlike . The female is bigger than the male and it has a pin shaped domiciliateerior end . The eggs are asymmetrically flat on one side . Enterobius vermicularis matures in the large intestine . The gravid female migrates to the perianal area at night and lays eggs that adhere to the perianal skin . The eggs subsequently embryonate and are infective several hours after deposition on skin . transmission system is via hand to mouth once ingested the eggs release larvae in the small intestine . The worm then migrates to the caecam where it grows into the adult . Reinfection may occur ( HYPERLINK http /www .ncbi .n /m :nih .gov /books /bv .fcgi /rid mmed .section4814G www .ncbi .n /m :nih .gov /books /bv .fcgi /rid mmed .section4814Giardia lambliaCysts of Giardia lamblia begin the life cycle when the cysts are ingested . Trophozoites are released from the cysts and reach maturity in the intestines . As they (trophozoites ) mature they move towards the colon and become cysts again w! hich will later be passed out in stool Giardia lamblia cysts are oval in shape with mature cysts having four nuclei while girlish ones have two nuclei . The trophozoites are pear shaped with flagella (8 ) and sometimes the sucking disc may be seen in microscopy (Winn and Koneman , 2006Trichuris trichuraThe females produce eggs which are passed in the feces .

They become embryos in soil . When ingested , the embryonated eggs hatch in the small intestine to form infective larvae . The larvae enter the villi and develop into worms which move to blind gut and cross the mucosa as they mature into adults (WHO 1987 . The eggs of Trichuris Trichura are barrel shaped with two glacial plugs which re main undefiled in microscopy . The shell of the egg appears yellow brown (Winn and Koneman , 2006hookworm diseaseThe adult hookworm is found in the mucosa of the jejunum , the adult lays eggs that are passed out in stool which hatch into rhabditiform larvae . The rhabditiform larvae later develop into filatiform larvae which penetrate the innkeeper through skin . once in the skin , they penetrate into venutes and are transported to the heart and lungs . Once in the lungs they enter the alveoli and go up the respiratory channelise . At this appoint they are swallowed and later attach to the intestinal mucosa where they grow into maturity (Winn and Koneman , 2006 . diagnosis is mainly based on identifying the egg in stool . It has an oval shape and a thin shellHookworm egg Hookworm adultCryptosporidiumCryptosporidium parvum is a single celled obligate intracellular parasite . Its oocyst , the infective stage is about 3um in size and is usually identified by imperviable dapple . Cryptosporidium life cycle begins with the sporula! ted oocysts . These enter the environment via stool of an infected host . Infection happens when the host ingests oocysts . Once in the intestines , the oocyst will release sporozoites Sporozoites invade the epithelium of the intestines they later undergo schizogony after which the sporozoites enter a internal reproductive stage . In this stage , macrogametes (female ) and microgametes (male develop and lastly fertilization occurs leading to zygote formation The zygote may become a thick walled oocyst that leaves the host or a thin-walled oocyst that reinfects the host (WHO , 19873 . How do you use a graticule in identifying ova , cysts and parasitesThe graticule is important for detecting motile trophozoites , cysts and ova in direct numbers as well as erythrocytes and cellular rubble . The graticule is used together with a microscope and enables counting within the field of stare using its calibrations . When precisely adjusted the graticule is used for proper visualization of cysts , ova and parasites4 . What fleck procedures are used on fecal samplesFecal samples undergo various staining techniques such as trichrome staining , modified trichrome staining , fluorescent staining haematoxylin stain , modified acid-fast staining and immunoassay staining techniques (Allen et al ,1970 . Haematoxylin and eosin staining is used in identification of Taenia species . The trichrome staining method is the most common with higher reports of success especially in identification of helminthes and protozoa5 . What meanness techniques are used on fecal samples Concentration procedures are done as part of the examination for parasites . They allow organisms that would other be missed to be detected . When used with parafix collection vials , OCP provides a method that is convenient and reproducible for parasite detection . Formalin and OCP are added to the fecal samples , coalesce and allowed to stand for a while before the sample is processed . Other techniqu es include the use of formalin-ethyl acetate . Water-! ether concentration is also used and is especially important when enumeration of oocysts is postulate as well as assessment of visibility (Allen et al , 1970 weber et al 19921 . Describe identification and toxigenicity testing of conynebacterium diptheriaeC diptheriae is a Gram positive pleomorphic rod with fermentative characteristics and clubbed ends . Presumptive identification has the hobby characteristics , a positive reaction for reduction of catalase nitrate , production of cystinase and fermentation of glucose and malt sugar . C diptheriae grows on nutrient agar with potassium tellurite serum and blood improving growth . Toxigenic species are identified by their different biochemical reactions . blackball reactions for the fermentation of sucrose , wood sugar , urease and pyrazinamide also help to tell apart biotypes . Var intermedius requires lipids for optimal growth (Gorbach , 2007 . Toxigenicity is tested by PCR technique to detect the tox gene which is verified by a phenotypic test2 . Why are orthopedic samples treated differently to most other tissue samplesOrthopedic samples are treated differently from other tissue samples due to the fact that they are not easy to obtain accounts for this . In addition , due to the deep seated nature of fancy up , deep samples and superficial samples often reveal different organisms or different degrees of infection3 . Why should good laboratory techniques be used when investigating possible post-orthopedic surgery infectionPost-orthopaedic surgery infection often take long to manifest and when samples are obtained they need to be handled with great care . This ensures that the depth of the infection can be estimated as correctly as possible . Additionally , if good laboratory techniques are not observed the possibility of lose an infective pathogen is likely which will lead to poor outgrowth in the surgery1 . Tests used to identify pathogensStaphylococcus aurensStaphylococcus aureus is identified b y the Gram stain and microscopy It is a gram-positive! bacterium that occurs in clusters resembling grapes . It is positive for the catalase test and is also coagulase positive . Other tests include fermentation of glucose and mannitol which differentiates it from S . epidermidis . S . aureas forms golden yellow colonies on agar (Winn and Koneman , 2006Beta-hemolytic streptococciBeta-hemolytic streptococci are gram positive bacteria that occur in chains . It is identified by the Bacitracin sensitivity test in which beta hemolytic streptococci when tested in discs of 0 .025IU Bacitracin forms a zone of inhibition slightly the disc (Mondlar and Kelkar , 1982ColiformsColiforms are bacteria that are used to indicate the level of fecal pollution in natural water . They are enumerated through membrane filtration . Antibiotic resistance epitome is also used to fingerprint isolates so that they can be matched to other fingerprints of fecal coliforms from already known sources (Whitlock et al , 2002Pseudomonas speciesPseudomonas is identifi ed based on Gram morphology , it is a negative rod . Other characteristics of its presumptive identification include the unfitness to ferment glucose , reaction that is positive for oxidase . Pseudomonas also has a soft odor and can grow at 420 C . other(a) identification ofaeuroginosa is aided by fluorescence under uv light (Online Textbook of Bacteriology , 2007Clostridium perfringensClostridium perfringens is a spore forming gram-positive , rod-shaped and anaerobic bacteria clostridium identified by the Nagler reaction . In this reaction C perfringens acts on phospholipase in egg vitellus medium For a positive test its zones of turbidity echo its colonies . The effect is inhibited when C .perfringens antiserum with alpha antitoxin is found on the medium (Online Textbook of Bacteriology , 2007Bacteroides fragilisBacteriodes fragilis is an obligate anaerobe . It is identified by blackening of resentment esculin agar . Bile esculin agar contains esculin bile , protohemin , f erric ammonium citrate and gentamicin in a trypticase! soja bean agar base . The growth of the organism uses up bile and hydrolyses esculin1 . What is the significance of seeing spirochetes in Vincent s stain slidesSpirochetes when seen in Vincent s stained slides are indicative of the bacteria Borrelia vincentii . When the are large numbers of Gram-negative rods that appear spiral-like the test is positive for Borrelia vincentii the precipitating(prenominal) organism for Vincent s angina ( bills Unit Evaluations and Standards Laboratory , 2007Section 6 .61 . What are the principles of tone of vox assurance you can interpret in a feel assurance reportThe information generated from the laboratory in a step assurance report should be accurate by following guidelines in the procedure manual , concerning tolerance units , acceptability of specimen preparation of reagents and the correct calculations . Reliability is another principle that is interdependent on the use of well qualified force for the various complexities of work , writing of reports on prescribed forms and postcode of corrective actions as well as reporting anomalies to supervisorsReproducibility is also a principle of fibre assurance . It ensures that high timber results can be obtained more than one time hence making them highly credible (WHO , 20061 . What are internal quality soften , external quality assessment random magisterial errors mean , SD , CV , imprecision , inaccuracy and biasWhere X mean n number of determine ValueCV is the coefficient of variation and provides measure of variability It can be used in comparison of methods which generate different units It is obtained by dividing standards deviation by the mean and presenting as a part by multiplying by 100Imprecision refers to errors resulting from compromised standards for example using a funky lens or poorly prepared reagents . It results in positive errors . Inaccuracy is those errors that result form instrument that have been facility poorly or that are f aulty resulting in harm readings (Medialab inc , 200! 8Bias refers to a situation where the testing process is altered often by a systematic error causing the results to a deceit of the true facts (Medialab inc , 20081 . Explain the use of Westgard Rules and charge Jennings plotsWestgard rules are important for definition or performance limits for an assay . They are therefrom useful in detection of random and systematic errors . They rules are in two sets , triplet warning rules and three needful rules . The warning rules when violated trigger the review of calibration of equipment , test procedures and reagents use . Mandatory results are important in deciding whether to reject serum samples of a patient in an assy . Levy Jennings plots display in graphic means the assay values of replicate control against time . When a control point is found outside the /-2SD line , the patients results cannot be reported because they are considered `out of control . When they fall within the cover lines they are considered `in control and can thus be reported (Medialab Inc , 20081 . What are the role and requirements of accreditation by CPA (UK ) ltdCPA (UK ) Ltd is the main accreditation body for medical laboratories in the UK . It has the role of ensuring that laboratories meet the required standards to ensure high quality work and promotion of quality health services the patients . The accreditation requirements of CPA are classified into set standards the organization and quality management system , the personnel , set ahead and environment , equipment , materials and information systems , the process of examination , pre-examination process and post examination processes . The laboratory is required to provide curtilage of quality in the management system , of qualified personnel and fair to middling staffing records that show the quality management system is effective and evidence of properly functioning equipment and a suitable working environment (CPA (UK ) Ltd , 20062 . Describe the different role s of the master and regulatory organization , for bi! omedical students such as IBMS , NPC and what is the relevance to master copy practiceProfessional and regulatory organizations for biomedical students are necessary and have the responsibility of maintaining high standards of professional training and professional conduct in biomedicine . IBMS awards certificates of competence to biomedicine students and enables the students to account with HPC . IBMS also appoints verifiers , assess academic qualifications and approves laboratories for training of students before they characterisation . These organizations are relevant to the professional practice because they ensure professionalism is intensify and maintained by allowing only competent biomedicine students join the organizationsReferencesAllen AV , Ridley DS , Further observations on the formol-ether concentration technique for faecal parasites . 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WHO Tech Rep Ser 749 , 1987Winn CW and Koneman EW , 2006 Kolemans colouration Atlas and Textbook of Diagnostic Microbiology , Lippincot Williams and Wilkins ISBNPAGEPAGE 13 ...If you want to get a full essay, order it on our website: < a href='http://www.orderessay.net/'>OrderEssay.net

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